AP Comparative Government · Class Hub
AP CompGov ✦ semester project

Welcome to my AP Comparative Government & Politics website

This site organizes notes, vocabulary, country case studies, news connections, and study tools ✧

Start with Vocabulary Go to Countries Log a News Update

Project Objectives

  • Organize course content in a clear, accessible format.
  • Track current events and connect them to AP concepts.
  • Develop comparative analysis skills across the six countries.
  • Create a study tool for review and exam prep.

Vocabulary

20+ terms per unit

Organized by unit/topic.

Unit 1 · Political Systems, Regimes, & Governments
AnarchyA condition in which there is no central, legitimate authority (no functioning state) to make or enforce rules; not necessarily chaotic, but characterized by absence of a recognized sovereign. Example (Nigeria): Local areas where the central government’s reach is weak (e.g., parts of the Niger Delta or regions with heavy militant/insurgent activity) can display anarchy-like governance vacuums.
Authoritarian regime A political system where power is concentrated in a single leader or a small elite that is not constitutionally responsible to the public; political pluralism and civil liberties are limited. Example (Russia): Centralized control over politics, media, and opposition illustrates authoritarian features.
Civil society The collection of organizations and associations (NGOs, unions, churches, professional groups, grassroots movements) that exist between the individual and the state and help mediate social life and political participation. Example (UK): Trade unions, charities, and local civic associations act as institutions of civil society, shaping public policy and accountability. .
Communist party-state A state in which a single communist party controls the government and political life, typically combining party and state institutions (no competitive multi-party elections). Example (China): The Chinese Communist Party directs political decision-making across state institutions.
Consolidated democracies Countries where democratic institutions (free elections, rule of law, civil liberties, stable party competition) are deeply established and broadly accepted across society. Example (UK): Longstanding institutions and regular free elections make the UK a consolidated democracy.
Country A political and geographic unit with defined borders and some degree of political organization — colloquially used interchangeably with “state,” though “state” emphasizes institutions and sovereignty. Example (Mexico): A sovereign country with defined territory, population, and governing institutions.
Democracy A system of government in which political power is vested in the people, exercised directly or through free and fair elections, with protections for civil liberties and political rights. Example (UK): Parliamentary elections, a competitive party system, and protected civil liberties exemplify democracy.
Democratic transition The process by which a country moves from an authoritarian or non-democratic regime to a democratic system (may be gradual or rapid, sometimes reversing). Example (Mexico): Mexico’s late-20th-century electoral reforms and the 2000 transfer of the presidency mark a key democratic transition.
Dependent variable (research) The outcome or effect that a researcher measures and seeks to explain. Example: In a study on “effects of GDP on regime type,” regime type (democracy vs. authoritarian) would be the dependent variable.
Dictatorship A government in which power is held by an individual or small group with little or no effective constitutional limits, often maintained by coercion. Example (Iran — in some analyses): Concentration of power in unelected institutions (and in other cases, institutionalized clerical authority) can resemble dictatorial features, depending on the definition used.
Failed states The outcome or effect that a researcher measures and seeks to explain. Example: In a study on “effects of GDP on regime type,” regime type (democracy vs. authoritarian) would be the dependent variable.
Globalization The intensification of worldwide social, economic, political, and cultural interactions and interdependence — seen in trade, capital flows, migration, technology, and ideas. Example (Mexico/NAFTA): Increased cross-border trade and foreign investment illustrate globalization's economic dimension.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) The total monetary value of all final goods and services produced within a country’s borders in a given period; a key measure of economic output. Example (UK vs. Nigeria): Comparing GDP highlights differences in economic scale and development.
Gross National Product (GNP) Total value of goods and services produced by a country’s residents (including abroad) during a time period, differs from GDP by adding net income from abroad. Example: A country with many citizens working overseas may have GNP > GDP.
Head of government The official who leads the executive branch and runs day-to-day government operations (e.g., prime minister). Example (UK): The Prime Minister is head of government.
Head of state A symbolic or constitutional leader who represents national unity and continuity (e.g., monarch or president), sometimes also holds executive power. Example (UK): The monarch is head of state.
Human Development Index (HDI) A composite index measuring average achievements in three basic dimensions: life expectancy (health), education, and standard of living (income). It ranks countries by human development levels. ( Example (Mexico vs. UK): HDI comparisons show relative human development, not just GDP.
Independent variable (research) A factor that a researcher manipulates or measures to see if it causes change in the dependent variable. Example: In a study testing whether education levels affect democratization, education is the independent variable.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) An international organization that promotes global monetary cooperation, financial stability, and economic policy advice; it provides loans and technical assistance to member countries. Example (Mexico): Countries sometimes seek IMF programs during balance-of-payments crises.
Keynesianism An economic theory advocating active fiscal policy (government spending and taxation) to manage aggregate demand and stabilize the economy, especially during recessions. Example (UK post-2008): Stimulus spending is an example of Keynesian policy during economic downturns.
Legitimacy The recognized right to rule — when citizens accept the authority of the government or political system as appropriate and just. Example (UK): Longstanding institutions and rule of law give the UK government broad legitimacy.
Liberal democracy A form of democracy that combines free and fair elections with strong protections for civil liberties, rule of law, separation of powers, and minority rights. Example (UK): Competitive elections plus judicial and civil freedoms make it a liberal democracy.
Nation-state A political unit where a largely homogeneous cultural or national community (nation) coincides with the state institutions governing a particular territory. Example (Mexico): The Mexican state governs a territorially defined nation with distinct national institutions.
Neoliberalism A policy approach favoring market-oriented reforms: privatization, deregulation, trade liberalization, and reduced state intervention in the economy. Example (Mexico 1980s–2000s): Structural adjustment and market liberalization policies reflect neoliberal trends.
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) A trilateral trade agreement (United States, Canada, Mexico) that came into effect in 1994 to reduce trade barriers and create a large free-trade area; superseded in 2020 by USMCA. Example (Mexico): NAFTA significantly increased North American trade and integrated supply chains, affecting Mexican manufacturing and agriculture.
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) An economic method for comparing living standards by adjusting GDP (or income) to account for differences in price levels across countries: gives a “real” sense of purchasing power. Example: PPP adjustments can show that incomes in Mexico buy more (or less) than raw exchange-rate GDP suggests.
Social class A division of society based on economic position (income, wealth), occupation, education, and cultural capital — often shapes political preferences and access to power. Example (UK/Mexico): Working, middle, and upper classes show different political behaviors and policy priorities.
Social movements Organized collective actions by groups of people seeking social or political change (civil rights, environmental movements, labor movements). Example (UK): Environmental activism (e.g., Extinction Rebellion) is a modern social movement influencing policy debates.
State A set of political institutions that holds the monopoly on the legitimate use of force within a territory, administers public policy, and provides order and public goods. Example (China): Strong, centralized state institutions govern economic and social life.
Transitional democracies Countries in the process of moving from authoritarian rule toward more consolidated democratic institutions; they may be fragile and subject to backsliding. Example (Mexico in the 1990s–2000s): Transitioned from one-party dominance to competitive elections.
World Trade Organization (WTO) The global international organization that establishes rules for international trade, resolves trade disputes, and works to reduce trade barriers among member countries. Example (UK/China): WTO dispute settlement and trade rules shape bilateral trade policies.
Unit 2 · Political Institutions
ExecutiveBranch that implements and enforces laws/policy.
LegislatureBranch that makes laws; can be bicameral or unicameral.
Unit 3 · Political Culture & Participation
Civil SocietyVoluntary associations outside the state.

Country Pages

UK · Russia · China · Mexico · Nigeria · Iran

Basic Political Structure

  • Regime Type: Democratic
  • System: Parliamentary
  • Electoral System: FPTP (Commons); others vary
  • Constitution: Uncodified (statutes, conventions)
UK IMAGE

Key Institutions

  • Executive: PM & Cabinet
  • Legislature: House of Commons & Lords
  • Judiciary: UK Supreme Court; independent
  • Parties: Conservatives, Labour, etc.

Social Cleavages & Issues

  • Regional (England/Scotland/Wales/NI)
  • Class & income inequality
  • Immigration & identity

Recent News

  • Headline:Two dead after attack on Manchester synagogue on Jewish holy day
  • Summary: Two men from the Jewish community were killed and three others seriously injured in a car-and-knife attack near a Manchester synagogue on Yom Kippur. The attacker, identified as 35-year-old Jihad Al-Shamie, a British citizen of Syrian descent, was shot dead by police. Authorities declared it a terrorist incident; three suspects are in custody, and police say the device Al-Shamie wore was “not viable.” The investigation into his motive is ongoing.
  • AP Connection: Terrorism and religious conflict as a challenge to civil society and public order; highlights the role of the state in maintaining security and protecting minority communities.
  • Reflection: Such attacks can deepen social cleavages and strain trust between communities and government, emphasizing the need for stronger counter-terrorism policies and community relations to preserve democratic stability.
  • Source: https://www.bbc.com/news/live/cx2703lnww4t

Basic Political Structure

  • Regime Type: Authoritarian (hybrid history)
  • System: Semi-presidential
  • Electoral System: Mixed-member (Duma)
  • Constitution: 1993 (amended)
  • How it became a modern state: Collapse of the soviet union, Economic reforms in the 1990s, Vladmir Putin, Imperial Reforms, Industrialization, Global integration, Technological and social modernization, Vladimir Putin taking power, Industrial Revolution and World War 2
    • UK IMAGE

Key Institutions

  • Executive: President & PM
  • Legislature: Federal Assembly (Duma + Federation Council)
  • Judiciary: Constitutional & Supreme Courts
  • Parties: United Russia (dominant)

Social Cleavages & Issues

  • Regional & ethnic republics
  • Resource dependence
  • Media freedom

Recent News

  • Headline: Moscow Threatens Action if Europe Uses Russian Assets for Ukraine
  • Summary: Russia condemned a European proposal to use about $165 billion in frozen Russian sovereign assets to fund loans for Ukraine, calling it “theft.” Kremlin spokesman Dmitri Peskov warned that Moscow could retaliate by seizing Western companies’ assets in Russia. President Putin has already signed a decree to speed up redistribution of foreign-held assets inside Russia. The EU plan—championed by Ursula von der Leyen—would issue a “reparations loan” to Ukraine backed by the immobilized Russian funds without directly seizing them. Analysts warn the dispute risks escalating economic retaliation and further fragmenting the global financial system.
  • AP Connection: Authoritarian resilience and challenges to state sovereignty in the global economy; highlights how international sanctions intersect with domestic political power.
  • Reflection: The dispute shows how economic tools—like freezing or redirecting sovereign assets—can become geopolitical weapons, straining international law and deepening East-West divides that affect global markets and alliances.
  • Source: https://www.nytimes.com/2025/10/01/world/europe/russia-frozen-assets-ukraine-loan.html

Basic Political Structure

  • Regime Type: Authoritarian (single-party)
  • System: Unitary; party-state
  • Electoral System: Indirect/local elections
  • Constitution: 1982 (amended)
  • How it became a modern state: 1982 (amended)
    • UK IMAGE

Key Institutions

  • Executive: President/State Council; CCP leadership
  • Legislature: National People’s Congress
  • Judiciary: People’s courts
  • Parties: CCP + 8 minor parties

Social Cleavages & Issues

  • Rural–urban; coastal–interior
  • Ethnic minorities (e.g., Uyghurs, Tibetans)
  • Environmental policy

Recent News → AP Concept

  • Headline: China Launches K Visa to Attract Foreign STEM Talent Amid Public Backlash
  • Summary: China recently launched the K visa to attract foreign professionals in STEM fields, aiming to make it easier for highly educated foreigners to enter and work in the country. The announcement triggered backlash on Chinese social media, especially from Indian users, who fear increased competition in a tight job market and question whether foreigners can adapt to China’s language and political environment. State media have tried to calm concerns, emphasizing that the visa is not equivalent to immigration and is intended to support scientific and technological exchanges. The initiative aligns with China’s broader strategy to attract international talent, especially as the U.S. tightens its H-1B visa program. Experts note challenges remain, including public skepticism, language barriers, and adapting to China’s restrictive political climate, which could affect innovation and creativity for foreign professionals.
  • AP Connection: Elite recruitment and state-led strategies to attract skilled labor; managing public opinion in authoritarian regimes; role of government in economic development and innovation.
  • Reflection: This policy illustrates how the Chinese government balances attracting global talent with domestic public concerns and political control. It highlights challenges in authoritarian states where innovation depends on foreign expertise but societal acceptance and political restrictions can limit effectiveness.
  • Source: BBC News – China K visa

Basic Political Structure

  • Regime Type: Democratic
  • System: Federal presidential
  • Electoral System: Mixed; PR + SMD
  • Constitution: 1917 (amended)
    • UK IMAGE

Key Institutions

  • Executive: President & Cabinet
  • Legislature: Chamber of Deputies & Senate
  • Judiciary: Supreme Court
  • Parties: Morena, PAN, PRI, etc.

Social Cleavages & Issues

  • Regional disparities
  • Security & rule of law
  • Indigenous rights

Recent News → AP Concept

  • Headline: Migrants Protest in Southern Mexico, Seeking Legal Status and Employment Opportunities
  • Summary: On October 1, 2025, around 1,200 migrants, predominantly from Cuba, but also including individuals from Honduras, Ecuador, Brazil, and Haiti, commenced a protest march from Tapachula in southern Mexico toward Mexico City. Their objective is to pressure Mexican authorities into expediting asylum processes and resolving prolonged delays in legalizing their immigration status. Many of these migrants have been stranded near the Guatemalan border for months with limited access to work or resources. Their frustration has grown due to setbacks including scams, document theft, and the cancellation of the U.S. CBP One asylum appointment app under former President Donald Trump. Unlike earlier migrant caravans aimed at reaching the U.S., this march is focused on staying within Mexico to seek asylum and find better employment opportunities. The protest was self-organized via social media platforms, and there is hope that authorities may respond by providing documentation or transportation assistance en route.
  • AP Connection: This event illustrates the concept of political participation and protest in authoritarian regimes, highlighting how marginalized groups, such as migrants, utilize collective action to demand political change and influence policy decisions.
  • Reflection: The migrant protest underscores the challenges faced by displaced populations in navigating bureaucratic systems and the importance of responsive governance. It also raises questions about the ethical obligations of states to provide timely and fair asylum processes, and the role of international cooperation in addressing migration issues.
  • Source: https://apnews.com/article/mexico-migrants-caravan-cuba-d123af92f61aa5257e21fabad7ff937a

Basic Political Structure

  • Regime Type: Democratic
  • System: Federal presidential
  • Electoral System: Two-round pres.; legislative FPTP
  • Constitution: 1999
  • How it became a modern state: Economic development, Urbanization, improvement in Education & Health, development in Technology.
    • UK IMAGE

Key Institutions

  • Executive: President
  • Legislature: National Assembly
  • Judiciary: Supreme Court
  • Parties: APC, PDP, others

Social Cleavages & Issues

  • Ethnic & religious divisions
  • Regional oil politics
  • Youth unemployment

Recent News → AP Concept

  • Headline: Nigeria’s Oil Output Drops 16% Amid Dangote Refinery Strike
  • Summary: A nationwide strike by Nigeria’s oil workers’ union, PENGASSAN, led to a 16% drop in daily oil and gas production, equating to a loss of approximately 283,000 barrels per day. The strike was triggered by the dismissal of over 800 unionized workers at the Dangote Refinery, Africa’s largest with a capacity of 650,000 barrels per day. Key energy facilities were shut down, causing disruptions in oil production, gas output, and power generation. The strike ended after government-mediated discussions, though vulnerabilities in the sector persist.
  • AP Connection: Labor strikes and their impact on national energy security
  • Reflection: The brief strike highlighted the significant role of labor unions in Nigeria’s energy sector and the potential vulnerabilities in the country’s oil and gas production. The disruption underscores the need for stable labor relations and contingency planning to ensure energy security.
  • Source: https://africa.businessinsider.com/local/markets/nigerias-oil-output-drops-16-during-brief-dangote-refinery-strike/q4rw6l6

Basic Political Structure

  • Regime Type: Theocratic republic
  • System: Unitary; dual executive
  • Electoral System: Candidate vetting by Guardian Council
  • Constitution: 1979/1989
    • UK IMAGE

Key Institutions

  • Executive: Supreme Leader & President
  • Legislature: Majles
  • Judiciary: Supreme Court; clerical oversight
  • Parties: Factions over formal parties

Social Cleavages & Issues

  • Religious & generational divides
  • Urban vs rural
  • Sanctions & economy

Recent News → AP Concept

  • Headline: Iran Considers Releasing Afghan Refugees into Iraq and Turkey Amid Rising Tensions
  • Summary: In response to recent bombings of its nuclear facilities and the reimposition of UN sanctions by European countries, Iran is contemplating a strategic shift that includes potentially releasing hundreds of thousands of Afghan refugees into neighboring Iraq and Turkey. This move is part of a broader, more assertive Iranian policy also involving missile program expansion, strengthened air defenses, and ceased cooperation with international nuclear inspectors. Iran has historically hosted up to six million Afghan refugees, but in 2025 alone, an estimated one million have been deported amid intensified border enforcement since Israeli strikes in June. Approximately 500,000 were expelled post-attacks, and up to four million more might follow. The country had temporarily legalized some Afghan refugees’ status, allowing access to limited services, but revocation of these "headcount" documents has left many vulnerable. Meanwhile, Iran has recalled its ambassadors from France, Germany, and the UK and continues to engage diplomatically with Russia and China to oppose the new sanctions, arguing that Europe no longer has legal standing in the nuclear deal.
  • AP Connection: This situation exemplifies the concept of "refugee diplomacy," where a state may leverage the movement or settlement of refugees as a tool in international negotiations or to exert pressure on neighboring countries.
  • Reflection: The potential release of Afghan refugees into neighboring countries could exacerbate existing humanitarian challenges in Iraq and Turkey, straining resources and infrastructure. Additionally, it may impact bilateral relations between Iran and these countries, influencing regional stability and cooperation.
  • Source: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/oct/02/iran-may-release-hundreds-of-thousands-of-afghan-refugees-into-iraq-and-turkey

News & Current Events

≥ 1 update per partial

Russia accused of using a church in Sweden as a spying hub.

Russia Political Participation Date: Source ↗

Summary: Local politicians in the Swedish city of Vasteras shut down a Russian Orthodox church they believe is being used by the Kremlin as a spying hub. Supporters of the church say this is an act of Xenophobia towards Russians. This case highlights how religious or cultural institutions may be leveraged for espionage by foreign states. It raises important questions for Sweden’s national security, legal limits on religious freedoms, and broader questions about foreign influence in democratic countries.

AP Concept Connection: This connects to the concept of sovereignty and security in liberal democracies because Liberal democracies must balance the protection of civil liberties, like religious freedom and property rights, with safeguarding national security. When a non-state institution (here, a church) potentially becomes a tool for foreign intelligence, it tests the state’s ability to uphold sovereignty and security without undermining democratic values.

Short Reflection: Questions for the class: Does this government response strengthen or weaken legitimacy? Could this incident affect political participation—by inspiring civic action, or by fostering distrust? Might a similar case occur in another AP country we study? Why or why not?

Study Tools

Timelines · Visuals · Practice

Timelines (per country)

Add key events in order. Duplicate for each country when needed.

1917 (Mexico) – Constitution established federal presidential system.
1999 (Nigeria) – Current constitution; return to civilian rule.

Infographics / Visuals

Here you'll find resources, graphs and infographics i've made.

GRAPHIC ORGANIZER 1

Practice Questions

Use MCQs or short FRQs. Example MCQ template:

1) In a parliamentary system, the executive is…

Short FRQ prompt example: Explain how a mixed-member electoral system can affect party representation. Use evidence from two course countries.